Introduction to Area-Based Advice from the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute

Introduction

Area protection is one approach to preventing the decline of habitats and ecosystems. Through active conservation, pressures can be managed according to criteria aimed at ensuring that the biological diversity and functioning of protected areas does not diminish.

The basis for protecting vulnerable marine areas was established in a review report by a committee appointed by the Minister of Fisheries in 2004. The committee comprised representatives from the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry of the Environment, and the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute (Anon 2005). It reviewed the legal framework for marine protection around Iceland, assessed the state of knowledge, and outlined Iceland’s international obligations. On the basis of research findings from the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute, the committee proposed closing or protecting three marine areas. It also recommended amending the Act on Fisheries within Iceland’s Fisheries Jurisdiction (No. 77/1997) to bring the protection of vulnerable marine areas within the scope of that legislation.

Two decades later, a steering group on marine protection was established under the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries (now the Ministry of Industries and Innovation). The group comprised representatives from this ministry, the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate, the Environment Agency, the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute, and the Icelandic Institute of Natural History. The steering group put forward draft procedures for the designation of areas for protection (Government of Iceland 2023). Under these procedures, the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute is responsible for assessing existing area protections, evaluating proposals for new protected areas, and proposing areas for protection. The Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate (2025) subsequently published a policy setting out biological diversity objectives to 2030. This aims to achieve the 30% targets of protecting and restoring ecosystems, and to ensure that the use of natural resources use is guided by an ecosystem-based approach.

The Marine and Freshwater Research Institute will provide advice on area protection based on a scientific approach and the best available information. The rationale for protection and the approach to site selection, implementation and design are specific to each case. Work proceeds on the basis that: (a) it should be possible to respond promptly and protect areas that require urgent protection or where sufficient data already exist; and (b) a long-term framework for the entire national marine area is developed, incorporating the planning of protected areas based on a range of information sources and planning priorities.

International Policy and Agreements

International organisations such as the United Nations (UN) and regional bodies such as the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) have developed policies on the protection and conservation of habitats and ecosystems. Iceland has committed to a number of policies and agreements relevant to the conservation of marine biodiversity and to the protection of vulnerable marine areas and species, which are referenced below.

UNGA resolutions on Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted resolutions 59/25 (2004), 61/105 (2006), and 64/72 (2009), calling for member states and regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) to identify areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) where Vulnerable Marine Ecosytems (VMEs) occur, or are likely to occur, and to prevent significant negative impacts from damaging fishing practices.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations subsequently published a set of criteria to identify VMEs (FAO 2009), and were subsequently endorsed by UNGA resolution 64/72. These criteria are now used by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) when providing advice on the location of VMEs in territorial waters of member states of the European Union, as well as in the areas under the jurisdiction of the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC).

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty adopted in 1992. It has three core objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources.

The CBD operates through a Conference of the Parties (COP), which meets periodically to set targets and review progress. The COP has generated a series of strategic frameworks, most notably the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2010-2020) and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF), adopted in 2022, which includes the arget of protecting 30% of land and ocean by 2030.

In the marine context, the CBD supports the EBSA (Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Area) process, through which regional workshops identify areas of particular ecological importance using seven scientific criteria. The EBSA process was originally applied to areas beyond national jurisdictions (ABNJ), but the initiative has broadened to include areas within national jurisdictions. The EBSA criteria have been used independently by some coastal states (e.g. Norway) to identify areas for conservation and management within territorial waters.

The OSPAR Convention

The OSPAR Convention (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) is the primary legal instrument governing international cooperation on marine environmental protection in the North-East Atlantic. The convention has been ratified by fifteen states, including Iceland, and by the European Union. Annex V to the Convention , adopted in 1998, extended the scope of the convention to include the protection and conservation of ecosystems and biological diversity in the maritime area.

The contracting parties have collaborated to establish a list of species and habitats considered threatened and/or in decline within the OSPAR maritime area. Species and habitats are nominated by contracting parties. Nominations are assessed through case reports in accordance with the Texel/Faial criteria (Agreement 2003-13), and are peer reviewed by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). The current list is published on the OSPAR website (Agreement 2008-6; Ospar.org; see also: https://www.ospar.org/site/assets/files/35421/posh_roadmap_info_doc.pdf).

Guidelines and Criteria

This advice is informed by several frameworks and criteria systems established for the identification of candidate areas for the protection of biological diversity. These take different approaches: some are policy-oriented, others apply ecological criteria for assessing species and habitats, and others identify priority areas or ecosystems. The frameworks and criteria systems are listed in Table 1.

Table 1
Frameworks, objectives and criteria for the protection of biological diversity
Framework	Objective	Criteria / Approach
CBD: KG-GBF Global Biodiversity Framework	To halt and reverse the decline of biological diversity by 2030	Action targets on protection, sustainable use, ecosystem restoration and reducing human impacts
CBD: EBSA Ecologically or Biologically Significant Areas	To identify areas that are ecologically or biologically significant	Unique or rare areas, important for life stages, biological processes, productivity, diversity and naturalness
OSPAR: Texel–Faial criteria	To assess which species and habitats require protection	Rarity, decline, vulnerability, distribution, ecological function and recovery potential
OSPAR: Threatened and/or declining species and habitats	To identify priority species and habitats for protection	Based on Texel–Faial criteria plus expert assessment and data on population trends
FAO: VME Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems	To protect vulnerable deep-sea ecosystems from harmful fishing	Vulnerability, slow growth/recovery, ecosystem structure (e.g. corals, sponges), rarity
ICES and NEAFC	To support the management and protection of marine areas	Uses the VME concept (FAO), plus data on species vulnerability, distribution and fishing impacts

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KG-GBF) is an agreement, adopted at the 15th Conference of the Parties (COP15) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 2022). It serves as the global roadmap for halting and reversing biodiversity loss by 2030, with a long-term vision of restoring harmony between humanity and nature by 2050.

The KG-GBF includes four goals and 23 action targets to be achieved by 2030. The first eight targets collectively address the major direct drivers of biodiversity loss. The first three targets are most relevant to spatial planning and management aimed at minimising the loss of biological diversity, and promote the protection and stewardship of nature (Table 2).

Table 2
Brief description of the first eight targets of the KG-GBF
Target	Description
1	Plan and manage all areas to reduce biodiversity loss by 2030 through participatory, biodiversity-inclusive spatial planning and effective management.
2	Restore 30% of a degraded ecosystems. By 2030 degreded ecosystems should be under effective restoration to enhanve biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
3	By 2030 conserve 30% of land, water and seas, particularly those important for biodiversity, through representative, well-conected and equitably governed systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures.
4	Halt human-induced species extinction. Recover threatened species, maintain genetic diversity, including through conservation and management of human–wildlife conflict.
5	Sustainable, safe and legal use of commercially exploited stocks and sale of wild species.
6	Reduce the introduction and impact of invasive alien species. Prevent the establishment of priority invasive species, reducing the rate of introduction and establishment of other species by 50%, and controlling invasive species in priority sites.
7	Reduce pollution to levels not harmful to biodiversity.
8	Minimise the impact of climate change and ocean acidification on biodiversity, and increase ecosystem resilience.

Targets 2 and 3 are particularly relevant for marine protection. They call for the protection of at least 30% of land, freshwater, coastal and marine areas, and the restoration of 30% of degraded areas by 2030.

Three pathways are identified for achieving the protection target: Protected Areas (PAs), Other Effective area-based Conservation Measures (OECMs), and Indigenous and traditional territories.

Particular emphasis is placed on the protection of areas important for biological diversity — those with special value for biological diversity and ecosystem services, areas rich in species or in threatened species and habitats, areas supporting particularly important habitats, or areas critical for ecosystem functioning and services.

To achieve the 30% marine protection target by 2030 under the KM-GBF, the focus must be on: (1) areas with special value for biological diversity and ecosystem services; (2) ensuring that protection is targeted, ecologically representative and connected; (3) governance and recognition of rights (including areas under community or indigenous governance that qualify as OECM); and (4) integrating protection into a broader landscape/seascape and ocean context, while ensuring that all sustainable use applicable within such areas is fully aligned with conservation objectives (CBD 2022).

Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs)

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity identifies marine areas as Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSA, CBD 2008 Decision IX/20). These are marine areas of particular ecological and/or biological significance, for example as essential habitats, feeding grounds or spawning areas for certain species. The EBSA criteria are used in this advice as a reference when assessing areas (Table 3). No EBSA areas have been formally defined within Iceland’s Exclusive Economic Zone; however, one has been defined on the southern part of the Reykjanes Ridge (CHM-EBSA-SCBD), outside Iceland’s EEZ. In 2025, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf granted Iceland sovereign rights over the continental shelf of the Reykjanes Ridge south of the current EEZ, and currently this EBSA area falls partially within that extent.

Table 3
CBD scientific criteria for identifying Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSA)
Criterion	Definition	Rationale and examples
Uniqueness or rarity (Uniqueness/rarity)	An area that contains either (i) unique, rare or endemic species, populations or communities, and/or (ii) a unique, rare or distinct habitat or ecosystem; and/or (iii) a unique or unusual geomorphological or oceanographic feature.	Irreplaceable. Loss would mean likely permanent reduction in diversity. Examples: deep-sea habitats, hydrothermal vents, seamounts.
Special importance for life history stages of species (Special importance for life history stages of species)	Areas that are required for a population to survive and thrive.	Various biotic and abiotic conditions make some marine areas more suitable than others. Examples: spawning, nursery areas; habitats of migratory species.
Importance of threatened, endangered or declining species and/or habitats (Importance of threatened, endangered or declining species and/or habitats)	Areas that support threatened or declining species and aggregations of such species.	To ensure the recovery and restoration of such species and habitats. Examples: spawning, nursery areas; habitats of migratory species.
Vulnerability, fragility, sensitivity or slow recovery (Vulnerability, fragility, sensitivity or slow recovery)	Areas that contain a relatively high proportion of sensitive habitats, biotopes or species that are functionally fragile or show slow recovery.	Indicates risk if human activities cannot be managed on the area or occur at an unsustainable pace. Examples: long-lived species, habitat-forming species, deep-sea species, sea-ice areas.
Biological productivity (Biological productivity)	Areas that contain species, populations or communities with comparatively higher levels of natural biological productivity.	Play an important role in underpinning ecosystems. Examples: upwelling areas, hydrothermal vent areas.
Biological diversity (Biological diversity)	Areas that contain a comparatively higher diversity of ecosystems, habitats, communities or species, or have higher genetic diversity.	Important for the evolution and maintenance of resilience of marine species and ecosystems. Examples: seamounts, cold-water coral communities.
Naturalness (Naturalness)	Areas with a comparatively higher degree of naturalness as a result of the lack of, or low level of, human disturbance or degradation.	To protect areas with near-natural structure, processes and functions. To maintain these areas as reference sites.

OSPAR Convention Criteria

According to OSPAR, the North-East Atlantic is divided into five regions. Iceland belongs to OSPAR Region I, the Arctic region. Species and habitats are assessed separately using the Texel-Faial criteria (OSPAR 2019), applied to a set of defined factors whose importance is evaluated both globally and locally. Criteria also exist for determining when a species are considered extinct within OSPAR regions or in decline (Table 4).

Table 4
Criteria for assessing the status of species and habitats and criteria for assessing lost or declining habitats in OSPAR areas (Texel-Faial criteria)
Category	Description
Species assessment
Globally significant	The importance of the OSPAR area at an international level is when a high proportion of a species, at any time in its life cycle, is found in the OSPAR area.
Regionally significant	Significant within the OSPAR area where a large proportion of the total number of a species, at any time in its life cycle, is restricted to a few locations within the OSPAR area.
Rare	A species is rare if its total population size is small. If a species is sedentary or has limited mobility, it is considered rare if found in few locations.
Vulnerable	A species is 'highly vulnerable' when (a) it has very low resistance or (b) it has very slow recovery. A species is 'vulnerable' when (a) it has low resistance or (b) it has slow recovery.
Keystone species	A species that has a decisive influence on a community.
Decline	Means that significant reductions in numbers, extent or quality have occurred or are indicated. Decline can be historical, recent or current.
Habitat assessment
Globally significant	A high proportion of the habitat is found within the OSPAR area.
Regionally significant	A high proportion of the habitat is found within a specific biogeographic region and/or is under the responsibility of a state within the OSPAR area.
Rare	A habitat is rare if it is restricted to a few locations or has a limited, sparse or isolated occurrence within the OSPAR area.
Vulnerable	A habitat is 'highly vulnerable' when (a) it has very low resistance or (b) it has very slow recovery. A habitat is 'vulnerable' when (a) it has low resistance or (b) it has slow recovery.
Ecologically significant	The habitat is very important in the broad context of ecological processes, functioning and species it supports.
Decline status	Decline means significant decline in extent or quality. The decline can be historical, recent or current and may occur throughout the OSPAR maritime area or regionally.
Assessment of lost or declining habitats
Extinct/lost (within OSPAR area)	A habitat that previously existed within the OSPAR area but which no information supports as still being present.
Serious decline	80% of its previous natural distribution within the OSPAR area, or extinct within other OSPAR areas.
Significant decline	The habitat has declined by 15–80% of its natural distribution within the OSPAR area or is extinct within several sub-regions.
Likely significant decline	High likelihood that the habitat will decline by 15% or more if no action is taken.

According to OSPAR, 18 habitats and 42 species are identified as threatened or declining. A full list of habitats and species can be found on the OSPAR website (ospar.org; OSPAR 2008). Of the eighteen habitats, thirteen are listed within OSPAR Region I (Table 5).

Species on the OSPAR list include invertebrates, birds, mammals, fish and reptiles. Of the 43 species, five are invertebrates, two of which are found around Iceland (the northern sea fan and the flame shell). Nine are birds, five of which are found around Iceland, including one vagrant. Twenty-two are fish, twelve of which are found here. Four whale species are included, all of which are found around Iceland except the North Atlantic right whale, which is considered extinct across all OSPAR areas (Table 6). In addition, there are two species of sea turtle, neither of which is found around Iceland but which may stray here.

Table 5
Habitats found in OSPAR Region I and their status as assessed within the five OSPAR regions
Icelandic name	English name	Threatened in OSPAR region no.
Karbónhólar	Carbonate mounds	V
Kóralgarðar	Coral garden	I, II, III, IV, V
Djúpsjávarsvampaþyrpingar	Deep sea sponge aggregation	I, III, IV, V
Sæfjaðrir og samfélag niðurgrafinnar fánu	Sea-pen and burrowing megafauna communities	II, III
Leirur	Intertidal mudflats	I, II, III, IV
Kóralrif	Lophelia pertusa reefs	I, II, III, IV, V
Öðubeð	Modiolus modiolus beds	I, II, III, IV, V
Kóralþörungabeð	Maerl beds	III*
Ormarif	Sabellaria spinulosa reefs	II, III
Sæfjöll	Seamounts	I, IV, V
Neðansjávarhryggir og hverasvæði	Oceanic ridges with hydrothermal vents/fields	V
Marhálmur	Zostera beds	I, II, III, IV
Þaraskógar	Kelp forest	II, III, IV
* Insufficient data to assess this habitat in Region I

Table 6
Species on the OSPAR list of declining or threatened species within Region I that have been recorded in Icelandic waters
Fish	Birds	Mammals
Basking shark Cetorhinus maximus	Black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla	Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus
Leafscale gulper shark Centrophorus squamosus	Ivory gull Pagophila eburnea	Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus
Porbeagle Lamna nasus	Steller’s eider Polysticta stelleri	North Atlantic right whale Eubalena glacialis
Portuguese dogfish Centroscymnus coelolepis	Brünnich’s guillemot Uria lomvia	Harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena¹
Spurdog Squalus acanthias	Lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus fuscus
Common skate Dipturus batis
Thornback ray Raja clavata¹
European eel Anguilla anguilla
Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus
Atlantic cod Gadus morhua¹
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar
Sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus
¹ Species not considered declining or threatened within Region I.

FAO’s criteria for Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) published guidelines for the identification of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VME, FAO 2009, Table 7). These guidelines are widely used when assessing and defining vulnerable marine ecosystems.

Table 7
List of FAO criteria for vulnerable marine ecosystems (VME)
	Description
Vulnerable marine ecosystems can be assessed from the following
1	Rarity or uniqueness — an area or ecosystem that is unique or contains rare species (endemic species, species threatened with extinction or threatened).
2	Functional significance of the habitat — e.g. important for the life history and survival of species, reproduction and/or spawning.
3	Vulnerability — the ecosystem is vulnerable to decline and destruction from human activities.
4	Factors that make recovery slow or difficult. Species or communities are slow-growing, mature late, recruitment is slow or unpredictable, or they are long-lived.
5	Structural complexity — ecosystems characterised by complex structures and architecture.
Examples of vulnerable groups, communities and habitats
i	Some cold-water corals (reef-forming and coral gardens) and Stylasteridae.
ii	Some types of dominant sponge communities.
iii	Communities with dense fauna forming important structure.
iv	Cold seeps and hydrothermal vents where endemic fauna is found.
Examples of seabed features or geological formations
i	Continental slopes and escarpments.
ii	Peaks and slopes of seamounts, banks and mounds.
iii	Canyons and trenches.
iv	Hydrothermal vents.
v	Cold seeps.

ICES’s and NAFO’s list of vulnerable marine ecosystems

The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) and the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) have published a list of vulnerable marine ecosystems and their sub-types based on expert assessment, drawing among other things on FAO definitions (ICES 2016, 2019, 2020; NEAFC 2015, Table 8). This list also includes species considered to be indicators of these ecosystems.

Table 8
Vulnerable marine ecosystems, sub-types and indicator groups according to the ICES/NAFO list. Comparison with the NEAFC list and whether the relevant habitat or sub-type has been recorded around Iceland.
Sub-type	Indicator group	NEAFC	In Iceland
Cold-water coral reef
Lophelia pertusa / Madrepora oculata reef	Stony corals	x⁺	x
Solenosmilia variabilis reef	Stony corals		x
Coral garden
Gorgonians and black corals (hard substratum)	Gorgonians, soft corals, black corals	x	x
Solitary stony corals on rocky seabed	Reef-building stony corals	x	x
Non-reef-building stony coral aggregations (hard substratum)	Stony corals	x	x
Lace corals on hard substratum	Lace corals / Stylasterids
"Cup-coral" gardens (hard substratum)	Stony corals	x
Cauliflower coral gardens (hard substratum)	Soft corals
Gorgonians and black corals (soft substratum)			x
"Cup-coral" gardens (soft substratum)	Solitary stony corals	x	x
Cauliflower coral gardens (soft substratum)	Soft corals	x	x
Non-reef-building stony coral aggregations (soft substratum)	Stony corals		x
Sea-pen field
	Sea pens	x	x
Deep-sea sponge aggregation
	Sponges of various types	x⁺⁺	x
Cerianthid field
	Ceriantharia	x	x
Stalked crinoid aggregation
	Stalked crinoids
Xenophyophore aggregation
	Xenophyophores	x⁺⁺⁺
Bryozoan patch
		x
Vents and chimneys
Active vents	Chemosynthetic species		x
Inactive vents			?
Cold seep
			?
+ NEAFC only identifies Lophelia pertusa reefs. ++ NEAFC identifies three sub-types (other sponge aggregations, siliceous sponge aggregations and glass sponge aggregations). +++ Only in deep areas under NEAFC jurisdiction.

International Union for Conservation of Nature

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international conservation organisation founded in 1948. It brings together states, institutions and scientists to protect biological diversity and promote the sustainable use of nature. IUCN is best known for the Red List of threatened species and for defining international conservation criteria and areas.

The Red List

The IUCN Red List assesses the extinction risk of species worldwide based on scientific data on population size and distribution. Species are classified into nine categories: Extinct (EX), Extinct in the Wild (EW), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Near Threatened (NT), Least Concern (LC), Data Deficient (DD) and Not Evaluated (NE).

Cold-water corals

The following cold-water corals have been assessed by IUCN according to their global status. Some species have also been assessed within Norwegian waters. No assessment of cold-water coral status around Iceland has been carried out, but assessed species found around Iceland are listed in Table 9.

Table 9
Status of cold-water corals found around Iceland according to the IUCN list that have been assessed globally. The Norwegian assessment of species is also given where applicable.
Species	Assessment in Norway
Critically Endangered (CR)
—
Endangered (EN)
—
Vulnerable (VU)
Desmophyllum pertusum	NT
Near Threatened (NT)
Paragorgia arborea	NT
Funiculina quadrangularis	LC
Kophobelemnon stelliferum	LC
Pennatula aculeata	LC
Pennatula phosphorea	LC
Primnoa resedaeformis
Least Concern (LC)
Anthothela grandiflora	NT
Ceratocaulon wandeli	DD
Desmophyllum dianthus	VU
Radicipes gracilis
Heteropolypus sol
Distichoptilum gracile
Data Deficient (DD)
Anthoptilum murrayi	LC
Balticina christii
Convexella jungerseni

Fish, mammals and birds

Fish species around Iceland have not been assessed under IUCN criteria. Species that have been assessed for Europe or globally and are found around Iceland are listed in Table 10 (https://www.iucnredlist.org/). Where a species has been assessed both globally and for Europe, only the European assessment is used here. Species on the OSPAR list of declining or threatened species (OSPAR) are also included in Table 10. Their status may differ depending on whether they are assessed globally or for Europe under IUCN.

Table 10
Status of fish according to the IUCN list — assessed in Europe or globally. Their status within OSPAR regions is recorded.
Species	Threatened within OSPAR regions
Critically Endangered (CR)
Common skate Dipturus batis (global)	I, II, III, IV, V
European eel Anguilla anguilla (Europe)	I, II, III, IV
Porbeagle Lamna nasus (Europe)	I, II, III, IV, V
Endangered (EN)
Basking shark Cetorhinus maximus (Europe)	I, II, III, IV, V
Leafscale gulper shark Centrophorus squamosus (Europe)	I, II, III, IV, V
Spurdog Squalus acanthias (Europe)	I, II, III, IV, V
Birdbeak dogfish Deania calcea (Europe)
Broadhead wolffish Anarhichas denticulatus (Europe)
Deepwater redfish Sebastes mentella (Europe)
Roundnose grenadier Coryphaenoides rupestris (Europe)
Vulnerable (VU)
Orange roughy Hoplostethus atlanticus (Europe)	I, V
Fulloni’s skate Leucoraja fullonica (global and Europe)
Tope Galeorhinus galeus (Europe)
Blue ling Molva dypterygia (Europe)
Atlantic halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Europe)
Near Threatened (NT)
Portuguese dogfish Centroscymnus coelolepis (global)	I, II, III, IV, V
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (global)	I, II, III, IV
Norwegian skate Dipturus nidarosiensis (Europe)
Greenland shark Somniosus microcephalus (Europe)
Velvet belly lanternshark Etmopterus spinax (Europe)
Rabbit fish Chimaera monstrosa (Europe)
Greenland halibut Reinhardtius hippoglossoides (Europe)
Spotted wolffish Anarhichas minor (Europe)
Lumpsucker Cyclopterus lumpus (Europe)
Least Concern (LC)¹
Sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus	I, II, III, IV
¹ Many other species have been assessed but are not included here, except for the sea lamprey which is assessed as threatened or declining according to OSPAR.

Important Shark and Ray Areas

ISRA (Important Shark and Ray Areas) are defined by IUCN. The aim of ISRA is to identify key areas for elasmobranchs and to support conservation plans and fisheries management. ISRA uses scientific criteria to delineate marine areas that are particularly important for sharks, rays and other elasmobranchs (Important Shark and Ray Areas - a IUCN/SSC SSG project). IUCN has identified candidate areas around Iceland (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Important areas for elasmobranchs around Iceland according to ISRA. Taken from the E-Atlas - Important Shark Ray Areas website, May 2026.

Icelandic Legislation on Marine Life and Habitats

In Icelandic legislation, two acts form the basis for protected areas at sea: the Nature Conservation Act and the Act on Fisheries within Iceland’s Fisheries Jurisdiction. The steering group on marine protection concluded that “there does not appear to be an urgent need to amend Icelandic legislation to meet the objectives of adequate protection of marine ecosystems. However, it would be desirable to further analyse the boundaries of different legislation and possible conflicts between different legal provisions and how protection under individual acts is compatible with international definitions” (Government of Iceland 2023).

The Act on Fisheries within Iceland’s Fisheries Jurisdiction (No. 79/1994) has been used to promote the sustainable use of marine resources. In 2005, this legislation was used to protect marine habitats by closing specific coral areas to bottom-contact fishing gear. Regulations on conservation measures for vulnerable marine areas and benthic ecosystems were subsequently introduced in 2023 (No. 188/2023).

The Nature Conservation Act (60/2013) grants the Minister of Environment the power to designate protected areas at sea with the consent of the minister responsible for matters relating to the management of marine and seabed resources regarding the protection of natural monuments at sea that may affect the exploitation of fish stocks or other living resources of the sea or seabed (Article 38). Various provisions of the Nature Conservation Act extend to the sea. An overview of protected areas, some of which are at sea or extend into the sea, can be found on the website of the Environment Agency of Iceland (Protected areas).

Act on Fisheries within Iceland’s Fisheries Jurisdiction (1997 No. 79, 26 May)

Article 9.
“The Minister shall take the necessary measures to prevent fishing that may be considered harmful with regard to the efficient use of commercially exploited stocks [and the preservation of vulnerable marine areas]. ¹⁾ [The Minister may by regulation ²⁾ inter alia designate special protected areas where fishing with all or certain gear types is prohibited.] ¹⁾”

Protection Categories

Protection can be divided into levels or categories depending on how strict the protection is and what activities are permitted within protected areas. Iceland has nine protection categories (Protection categories), based on the classification system of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for protected areas.

Icelandic protection categories are: Nature reserves, wilderness areas, national parks, natural monuments, nature conservation areas, landscape protection areas, recreation areas, protection under the conservation and energy utilisation plan, and protection of entire water systems.

IUCN protected area categories are internationally recognised, and guidelines for them have been published (Dudley 2008, Table 11). IUCN categories are used in the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), which is the principal international database of protected areas.

Table 11
IUCN protected area categories and description of their use at sea
Category	Icelandic	English Name	Description and use at sea
Ia	Strangt náttúruverndarsvæði	Strict Nature Reserve	Research only, no resource use permitted.
Ib	Víðerni / óbyggðir	Wilderness Area	Minimally disturbed, no resource use.
II	Þjóðgarður	National Park	Large marine areas, ecosystem protection.
III	Náttúruminjar eða náttúrulegt fyrirbæri	Natural Monument or Feature	Special geological or marine features.
IV	Svæði fyrir stjórnun búsvæða eða tegunda	Habitat/Species Management Area	To maintain specific species or habitats. Examples: spawning grounds or bird habitats.
V	Verndað landslag/sjávarlandslag	Protected Landscape/Seascape	Cultural and natural values. Areas with traditional sustainable marine use.
VI	Verndað svæði með sjálfbærri nýtingu auðlinda	Protected Area with Sustainable Use of Natural Resources	Large areas with sustainable use and ecosystem protection. Marine areas where limited fishing with environmentally friendly methods is permitted.

Area Connectivity

The term connectivity refers to the degree to which ecosystems and habitats are interconnected, enabling organisms to move between areas, maintain genetic diversity and respond to environmental change. In the context of marine conservation, connectivity is of central importance: protected areas must not only be ecologically diverse and well managed, but also spatially interconnected so that they form coherent ecological networks capable of supporting biodiversity over the long term.

Effective connectivity encompasses a range of factors, including the seasonla or permanent use of areas by mobile species, genetic exchange within and between populations, the migration routes of marine mammals and fish, functional links between marine and freshwater environments, and the dispersal of larvae and propagules by ocean currents. The design of protected areas must account for both structural connectivity, the physical arrangement of habitats across a seascape , and functional connectivity, which describes whether and how organisms actually move between those habitats.

International frameworks, including the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and OSPAR’s network of Marine Protected Areas in the North-East Atlantic, explicitly recognise ecological connectivity as a core principle in the design of representative and effective networks of protected areas.

References

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